"I. AM. BEOWULF!" -Beowulf

Well that movie sucked. Regardless of how cool, accurate, or impressive the computer animated-ness of it was, the medieval accuracy of Beowulf was, in my opinion, sub par to say the least.

But, instead of dogging the film further, I shall focus on (the only) two aspects of the film that were commendable from my perspective. Both of them are in regards to Grendel, the first being his representation (physical, emotional) and the second being the apparent shadiness surrounding his lineage.

First, I do admit when Grendel first debuted I did not expect him to appear as he did. Standing in Hrothgar's animated mead hall in (essentially) the flesh and bone is not at all as I imagined him. From the textbook and Mr. Heaney's translations, the image of some dark, animal-ish creature was ingrained in my head and has been since our time with the epic poem. However, I believe the way the animators depicted Grendel in the film actually worked to their benefit...

So, if you can't recall what the animated Grendel looked like, see below.

Now, despite the expression he is making... does he look as demonic as the poem makes him sound? In fact, whom does he most resemble? That's right, us (in fact, me on most Monday mornings). But seriously, because the animators decided to have Grendel look like humans (only, in a more zombie-ish form) I think the symbolic point is clearly made. Although he is often characterized as an external villain that we must destroy in the world, he may just be the internal villain we keep alive in ourselves.

As I watched the movie, I couldn't help but feel bad for him. As we found out in the film, he's being forced to do his mothers doing and, subsequently, has to endure great physical pains (spears, knives, and men flying at full speed toward him, his arm getting chopped off by a steel door). We can examine Grendel's misfortunes all we want, however I think the questions "Why did Grendel have to endure these misfortunes and why did he attack Hrothgar's hall  in the first place?" are much more interesting.

If you watched carefully, there were a few moments where characters had lines that just seemed awkward and out of place in the grand scheme of things (like when Hrothgar says that thing about Grendel's mother being Beowulf's burden now or when, after Beowulf kills Grendel, he says he has no sons and gives the crown to him [Beowulf]). However, having read this scholarly article a few months back I think I knew exactly what they were getting at. I'll spare you the task of reading the article for yourself and just boil it down to this: Hrothgar and Grendel's mother were somehow related and ended up having Grendel incestuously. TWIST, right? I don't know enough about this family tree business to say much more about the issue but I wanted to bring it up because I thought it was fascinating AND logically sound.



Overall movie rating: 1.5/5 starz

Image citation (sorry if this is incorrect, the blog is in Icelandic or something and I can't differentiate between the name of the blog and the name of the Author...)

SÖk I DENNA. “Loke". Photograph. Hedniska Tankar. Wordpress. N.d., Web. 18 Dec. 2013.

A Knights Tale

After finishing up A Knight's Tale during Friday's class I was left thoroughly impressed with the film. Not only did it include two of my favorite actors but it was also surprisingly historically accurate.

Obviously we all are familiar enough with Geoffrey Chaucer and his magnum opus Canterbury Tales by now that it was impossible not to recognize the portrayal of both him and his tales in this film (Simon the Summoner and Peter the Pardoner respectively). Although his true personality may not have been as exuberant as Bettany portrayed it to be, I found it interesting the way the filmmakers decided to characterize Chaucer. I think they intentionally presented him as humorous and endearingly mischievous in order to get audiences to like him and pay attention to him when he appeared in scenes. This would work to their advantage because viewers would be more apt to listen to his lines which is where the real medieval accuracy lies. Since Chaucer is considered the father of English literature and noted for his poetic style, I believe the writers of the film specifically had Bettany's lines reflect historically what Chaucer is famous for (ex. nature of rhyming, use of prophetic imagery, and 'high brow' language).

Another character I was especially interested in was Heath Ledger as William Thatcher. It is easy to draw connections between his character and every other  Christ-like dream boat that appears in Arthurian Legend (Lancelot, Galahad, even a young Arthur) but I was more interested in his assumed name of Ulrich Von Liechtenstein he utilizes throughout the film. After some brief research I found out that Sir Ulrich did in fact exist! Not only was he real but historically he was known as a medieval minnesinger (people who wrote love poetry in the courtly tradition) as well as a ministerialis (a word to describe the unfree knights during the High Middle Ages). Moreover, Ulrich's claim to fame is his poetry collection Frauendienst which includes two stories, one of which is essentially the plot of A Knight's Tale: A man in guise travels to a nearby town, competes in jousts and tournaments for a noblewoman, and the woman demands more deeds and mutilation from him for the honor to hold her hand. I can't imagine that filmmakers didn't intentionally draw from the real Ulrich and his work when deciding what to do with Ledger's character.

Stepping away from characters and looking at the movie from a more holistic perspective, I think the entire gist of four rag tag pilgrims who are down on their luck by society's standards but  successfully 'change their stars' because of their inherently good nature is just another example of the challenges and pressures folks during this time period had to endure. It's odd because, before this movie I had never thought about it (or, I did but don't remember thinking about it) but, all of the modern day references embedded in this movie let me see just how similar the problems people dealt with then are the same problems we deal with today. Society shines the spotlight on the rich and famous, despite the fact most of them have been made sinful by their glory. Meanwhile, the everyday, well-meaning folks who are just trying to catch a lucky break are continuously being pressured by the world to stay in their socioeconomic place.

This isn't anything brilliant but...it just kind of sucks, ya know? I mean, society and civilization has advanced over 600 years since all of this and, regardless of how well we try to mask it, we're still dealing with the same exact issues. I guess that's why so many depend on their faith above all else. That promise of a better life/realm/place is enticing enough for people to leave the hope that their own stars may change up to a force so powerful and so personal that not even society can bring it down.

Overall movie rating: 4.5/5 stars

Joining the Great Debate: Chaucer and The Prioress's Tale

After reading, what is considered Chaucer's magnum opus, Canterbury Tales my perspective on the medieval times changed dramatically. Because of the style it is written in, Chaucer gives readers an insight into the lives of those who lived during the Middle Ages and, if one reads carefully, offers his own critique of the societal practices and norms that existed during his time in each tale. To examine this phenomenon I will focus this blog on one of his most popular (and controversial) tales, The Prioress's Tale. In a response to Doc's questions and as an extension of today's discussion, I'd like to add my own ideas and opinions as to what Chaucer was really trying to say and the point he was making using this tale.

In my opinion, I believe the actual point of this tale is an attempt made by Chaucer to indirectly mock the hypocritical messages that exist in Christianity. I find his descriptions of the Jewish so over-exaggerated that through these descriptions, his sarcasm can be seen. Lines such as "First of our foes, the Serpent Satan shook Those Jewish hearts that are his waspish nest..." which describe the Jews are, to me, very strategic. Not only does it provide readers with an easily identifiable 'antagonist' or 'evil' character but, I believe, it also subtly brings to light the widely popular Christian opinion of the Jews that existed then. To further prove this claim, I believe that Chaucer is using this tale to highlight one of Cohen's seven theses (included in his Monster Culture). If you recall, the sixth theses is entitled 'Fear of the Monster is Really a Kind of Desire'*. So, with this in mind, if one were to re-read this tale I believe the detailed descriptions of the Satanic Jews brutal murder of the innocent, Christian boy could actually be seen as a secret Christian's desire to murder the Jews.

Now, in regards to the second question posed, I believe (again) that Chaucer is intentionally mocking the Church's belief that nonbelievers should be punished and suffer. If we keep my last paragraph's tie into Monster Culture in mind, it becomes evident at how the same theses can be applied to prove my claim. Because Chaucer uses, again, extremely descriptive and/or over-exaggerated lines to depict the Christian boys murder, it represents secret desires of Christians to murder Jewish boys in this manner. Furthermore, it is used in such a satirical way to make the point that the Church (as represented by the Jewish's Ghetto in the tale) is encouraging of the use of force in such a way that they use it to justify their faith.

For my final paragraph, I'd like to bring up a somewhat off-topic, yet totally on-topic point regarding the legitimacy and over-arching ideas embedded in this piece. If you remember, in our discussion today we noted the Prioress's being described and referred to as, first and foremost, a woman (instead of a nun) as especially significant. With that in mind, I kept thinking about the men (mostly, except for the kick ass Wife of Bath's) who were on the pilgrimage and who were so taken with the Prioress's tale that they felt their soul cleansed and faith renewed after the tale was over. Now, just a few tales ago (ie. Miller and Reeve) Chaucer was making the greater societal point that women were stupid, deceiving, and, therefore, not to be trusted. So that leaves me dumbfounded at how the pilgrims were so easily persuaded by the Prioress and now I wonder, what does this tell us about true, Christian society during this time? I believe it, again, reiterates the implicit shakiness of the faith and the Church's role. After all, these folks are being brought together on a religious mission for Pete's sake... how did they already lose their faith? My conclusion: They never had the honest, genuine faith to begin with and were motivated to pilgrimage by their own intrinsic need for greed or popularity or some other human fallacy.


*COMBER! This is where reading your dissertation may have actually not been a good thing. I have no idea if I thought of this myself or am remembering this from your piece, so sorry if I'm accidentally stealing your genius ideas!

Works Cited

Chaucer, Geoffrey. The Canterbury Tales. England: Penguin Books, 1951. Print.

Concrete Christianity?

This week has been filled with interesting discussions and discoveries, all things medieval. Beginning on Monday with the continuation of our Julian of Norwich discussion, the issues of proof, faith, and science versus religion were brought up. For me, this discussion challenged my ideas of faith and led me to question the validation of the Christian religion as a whole.

As I've stated previous, before this class began I had many preconceived notions about the Middle Ages. Now, most of these have been proven wrong in the sense that I had significantly downplayed the role of X, Y, Z and given them some sort of lack of credit. However, the notion of Christianity is something I may have actually overestimated. See, I believed that the Middle Ages was a "peak" time period for Christians and their religion. I understood there was fighting (Crusades) and killing (Crusades) and discrimination (Crusades)* BUT I was steadfast in my assumption that Christianity was a secure, flourishing, and popular backbone for citizens to rely on during this time.

However, after reading the pieces from these past two weeks (Rules of St. Benedict, Boethius, and Kempe's autobiography), participating in Monday's discussion, and researching a bit about indulgences, the fragility of the entire "system" of Christianity has come to light. For example, during my research of Medieval indulgences I came across several articles in reference to Martin Luther (You can thank K. Avery for that link). He argued that the Church had become too corrupt to provide people with the actual guidance that people would need to obtain salvation. So, he nailed his infamous 95 theses to the door of a cathedral all of which discussed 'the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences'. I say all of this to make the point that, although it may be a bit of a stretch, Mr. Luther may or may not have become the newest candidate for the position of 'Other' for my specialty area. Obviously, him and his theses represent religious conflict but, even more interestingly, this case almost represents an internal conflict (Religion A vs Religion A) that reveals a subtle yet notable "break" in the Christian system.

One last thing that caught my attention this week is in directly regarding my research about indulgences and the discussion on Monday. The most interesting aspect of that discussion, I thought, was the issue of faith and proof. I have always been confused as to why, if one truly has faith, their seems to be an implied inclination to actively demonstrate it. As in, I find that those deemed 'most faithful' in society are those that have the most tangible 'proof' of their faith (this could explain why saints with relics and indulgences are regarded with so much respect meanwhile Kempe and her visions are simply dismissed as crazy). When researching indulgences, this thought came up again because, it seems, indulgences give the common people and their self-proclaimed faith their much needed 'proof'. I personally think that the historical abuse of indulgences proves my hypothesis correct but I'd be interested to hear a differing opinion or some further insight regarding one's faith and it's relation to proof.




*I understand that the Crusades were not the only Christian outlet for fighting, killing, and discrimination but I just repeat them because the entire blatant hypocrisy of it all gets me every time...

Thanks Marge: Interpretation and specialty area progress

The majority of this week, as we all know, has been spent studying our respective female authors in regards to their personal spiritual encounters. So far, my experience with this project and Margery Kempe has been.... interesting. From my exposure to The Book of Margery Kempe and an additional scholarly article from the one and only JSTOR, I've been reminded of some important lessons in how one should approach studying medieval literature.

One of the very first things our class discussed was during our time with Beowulf and the issue of translations came up. Now, I have only read the translation that Doc put on the website so I guess when I say 'translations' I'm using the term loosely and am referring to the transaction between author -> reader rather than author -> translator...Wait a second... what I'm thinking of was during the poetry unit, actually. OKAY so I'm trying to discuss the issue of INTERPRETATION. Remember when we discussed how people could get completely different meanings out of the poems if, for example, they gained more contextual knowledge? Well... I've wrestled with Margery a few times in that sense during this week. Upon first reading the excerpt from Chapter 28 I didn't think much of it. It seemed too straightforward, sporadic, and by the time I finished, I totally understood why Kempe was challenged by many as a mad woman. However, after finding and reading my every so helpful scholarly article I was able to gain a different yet fascinating perspective.

The article focused a lot on, honestly, proving Kempe's sanity. It didn't deny the fact that there were traces of her madness but, simply, re-focused it in terms of Margery (as seen in the autobiography) Wait, I don't want to spoil that for tomorrow. Okay so just know that it brought a few interesting points to my attention and, with the help of some newly discovered contextual information, the second time I read through the excerpt I was not only able to understand the reading itself better but I was also able to understand the reading from the author's perspective (a sane one, at that) which ultimately allowed me to give more credibility to the entire text.

Besides learning to be a bit more patient and a little slower to judge, I believe I learned something from this unit that could potentially aid in my specialty area. First, if you don't remember my specialty area... we're not friends. Just kidding, the technical name for it is: Religious conflict from the perspective of the Other. Now, this idea was implanted by Doc (of course) but the more I think about it, the more I convince myself that it can relate. Whilst leaving class today, she suggested that Kempe could almost be thought of as one of my 'Other' perspectives. Now, I quickly dismissed that idea because I forgot what my topic was and thought that I had restricted myself to a Jewish or Muslim 'Other' [ie. The Cultural Construction of Monsters: "The Prioress's Tale" and Song of Roland in Analysis and Instruction]...but since I didn't, I retract that dismissal!

So regardless that Kempe is arguing from a Christian perspective she is, nonetheless, still qualified to be an 'Other'. This religious conflict not only exemplifies a religious issue (Kempe's strive for Sainthood) but can also reflect a bigger, societal conflict of the time period (role of women in the middle ages, implications of exile/isolation, etc.). Furthermore, the fact that Kempe was able to be such a nuisance to higher order religious authority whom, for the majority, were men and have such an effect on the Christian hierarchy begs the question: how stable was Christianity and to what degree were the members who deemed themselves Christians really comfortable with their faith?

Monsters and the Sistine Chapel's ceiling plan

Interestingly enough, what struck me most during this short week of classes was the latter section of Doc's PowerPoint presentation on Medieval "print" media. It focused around the art that was painted in churches during the time period and delved into the subject of Medieval architecture itself.

When we began to talk about the tendency for people to (for lack of a better term) 'look around' during Church services and discussed how that would've been the main reasoning's for the (almost) bombardment of Christian art, I began to view those actions in two very different lights. See, I tried to place myself in that time period while also drawing from modern experiences I've had with churches in the past and, by doing this, I seemed to have encapsulated two distinct perspectives.

The first perspective, which I might as well refer to as the 'normal (culturally accepted) perspective' was one of absolute awe. Upon viewing the interior of buildings such as the Sistine chapel I could not help but stare in disbelief as I witnessed this incredible devotion to faith and details. Even though I am viewing it 500 years later, Michelangelo has managed to make the often overlooked, core of Christianity beautiful.

On the other hand, however, as I began to really take the piece in as a whole and witness the sheer magnitude of the chapel's interior I felt seriously terrified. It was as if all of the colors and depictions of people began to flood my entire vision and there was simply too much to take in. In fact, almost all of the characters began to take on a 'monstrous' appearance as I began to imagine them all falling from the wall and coming to life.

It was then that I realized my two perspectives happened to be clearly represented in the art itself. With another look at the Sistine Chapel's ceiling plan we briefly viewed today, I noticed that the division of the 9 scenes are categorized into three separate 'sections', two of them being: The creation and downfall of Adam and Eve and The Creation.

Now, if I were to assign my perspective's each one of the previously mentioned categories, the 'normal perspective' would match up with the depictions of The Creation. This is because it seems that, at the bare minimum, the basic, societal understanding of God is one from the first few lines in Genesis. As for the depictions of the creation and downfall of Adam and Eve, I believe they would match up with the monstrous viewpoint. Not only were they, quite figuratively, depicted as monsters in the Bible but still, to this day, represent the monstrous tendencies inside of us that we must actively seek to avoid.

Anglo Saxon poetry

Something I found especially interesting among all of the poems we read this week was the unmistakable thematic commonality of the inclusion of animals. However, I don't just mean there was an animal randomly appearing in each story but rather, as I read through each of the poems I would come across either actual animals representing previously discussed themes (like in The Husband's Message the gulls were circling) OR the characters themselves would be animal-ized (is that even a word?).

However, I'd like to back-up for a moment and connect this with another common theme that was heavily emphasized and agreed upon in class. It is quite obvious that each of the poems included the thematic element and setting of banishment/exile. Contextually, we know this would make sense because of how common banishment was during this time as new Lords and Kingdoms would gain power. I bring this up because I noticed that many of the characters who found themselves sorrowfully exiled or fighting their own banishment were described in relation to animals.

For instance, in The Wife's Lament the main character describes herself as being forced to live in "a forest grove, under an oak tree in an earthen cave". Usually, we think of bears or other animals living in 'earthen caves' as shelters. Using this as a description of an exiled human being's home creates a sense of difference and is used as a form of displacing the exiled (minority).

Furthermore, in Wulf and Eadwacer (Woo-lf and AID-WALKER) the men on the island are described as fierce if they are received by others who pose a threat. Upon reading this I definitely got a Lord of the Flies vibe and immediately characterized the men as savages who have resorted to their animalistic tendencies to, first and foremost, protect and defend.

One further example I found is from The Battle of Brunanburh when the warriors are described as "grizzle-haired" while fighting. This, in stark contrast with the description of the animals such as that "greedy war-hawk" and the "gray animal the wolf in the forest" who are described as enjoying the corpses after the battle has ended. I believe that, by using animalistic characteristics to describe warriors, the author of the poem is trying to emphasize the point that the intentions and tendencies of human interaction had built up (or been torn down?) to a primal level during this period of time. Furthermore, by including the actual animals and describing them completing an evolutionary and naturalistic act, I believe the author may be trying to suggest that, as complex as humans may be, in the end, we are all animals and our primal instincts will be the only thing that remain when all else is lost...

Works Cited

“The Battle of Brunanburh”. Handout. Medieval Literature. Burris Lab. 27 Aug. 2013

“The Wife’s Lament”. The Exeter Book. Eds. Krapp, George Philip and Van Kirk Dobbie, Elliot. Columbia: UP, 1936. Print.

“Wulf and Eadwacer”. The Exeter Book. Eds. Krapp, George Philip and Van Kirk Dobbie, Elliot. Columbia: UP, 1936. Print.

Anglo Saxon Literature and Beowulf

This week marks my first experience with and exposure to Anglo Saxon history and literature. Beginning with Doc's amazing PowerPoint's, I quickly knew my previously held elementary understanding of the so-called 'dark ages' would soon be replaced.

Doc's first PowerPoint was primarily focused on explaining the history of the Medieval times. From this, I learned that during this era so many important events occurred and one of the clearest ways to understand these happenings (in both a subjective and objective sense) was to seek understanding in the art produced during them. By exploring the literature, artifacts, relics, etc. that survive from this period in time, one is given a rare, subjective glimpse into the creators mind that can, in turn, be understood through modern contexts.

In retrospect, this may have been the most beneficial and surprising things I learned this whole week. I never would have expected to understand this period so well, so fast that I could begin to empathize with characters that represented a civilization which existed over 1,000 years ago. Ultimately, all of this aided in my arrival at, perhaps, the most important realization of all; the term 'dark ages' amounts to nothing more than a gross oversimplification and stereotypical coining of this period of time.

Sure enough, Doc had prepared yet ANOTHER amazing PowerPoint. However, this one focused more specifically on the history of 'Anglo Saxon'* literature. One of the main points discussed in this presentation was the distinction between the story and the scribe. Having learned that the pagan, oral translation of stories were ultimately recorded by Christian scribes, my initial approach to reading the literature was compromised and I soon began to read each with a grain of salt. This point was reiterated when a brief outline of the common themes and motifs that were central to Anglo Saxon literature were discussed. Each of them I felt, had an undertone of Christian symbolism and, as a result, I was able to identify many of these (Christian) themes when reading Heaney's translation of Beowulf.

In Grendel lines 514-518 explain how Beowulf braved the water, "Taking its measure, mastering currents, Riding on the swell." and goes on to say how an encounter with Breca lasted seven nights. Additionally, in line 3039 in The Death of Beowulf, a "serpent on the ground, gruesome and vile, Lying facing him [Beowulf]" is described in addition to the mentioning of twelve warriors that rode around his [Beowulf's] tomb. The symbolism appearing in Grendel describes Beowulf controlling the waters like Moses and, later on, compares him to God after emerging victorious after the seventh night. In The Death of Beowulf, a serpent is described lying near Beowulf as he near's death, symbolizing the evil power and chaos that will soon overtake the kingdom as a result of his passing. Furthermore, near the end of the second reading, twelve warriors are described as taking place in the burial procession, in contrast with the twelve sons of Israel. These biblical allusions serve as indicators of the Christian's hand in the translations of Anglo Saxon literature. It is an especially significant point because it puts into question the role of the translator and reminds the audience to consider their role when reading pieces such as Beowulf.

Overall, I thoroughly enjoyed this week, in part because I was able to learn at a different speed and in a different way than I initially expected. Beowulf and the history of the Medieval era has certainly given me a lot to think about in regards to my specialty area and I hope to further explore the elements of each more throughout the semester.

Works Cited

Heaney, Seamus. Beowulf: A New Verse Translation. NY: Norton, 2001. Print

*I put Anglo-Saxon in quotations because, as we all learned, there were many more tribes than just the Anglos and the Saxons who, unfortunately, get thrown under this alleged all -encompassing term.

Art museum

This afternoon's trip to the David Owsley Museum of Art's medieval collection significantly helped aid in my understanding of the Middle Ages. While observing each piece of art, I was able to both understand and gain new insights about the time period as well as reiterate some of my own previously held beliefs about Medieval times.

The first thing I noticed when I entered the West Gallery was the amount of pieces that had some sort of religious involvement. Whether it was literal pieces such as Christ or a more symbolic piece such as Aertsen's Kitchen Still Life with a Scene of the Supper at Emmaus Beyond all of them shared the same underlying theme of Christian representation. From previous experience and observations, I knew that religion was a significant part of the Middle Ages but today I learned exactly to what degree this significance actually was.

A large part of this revelation came from reading the descriptions next to each piece. For example, I learned from Christ? that this type of limestone head would have been placed on some sort of large-scale, 13th century sculpture exclusively for the purpose of embellishing a cathedral because cathedrals were regarded as the focus of town life. From this, I was able to gain understanding and hypothesize the effect and importance that religion might have played for peasants in small towns during this time.

Another example comes from Giovane's Saint Jerome. I found this piece to be the easiest to connect with on an emotional level in the sense that I felt I was able to instantly empathize with the human emotions that the subject in the painting expressed. Furthermore, the placard pointed out the very interesting observation that, historically speaking, Saint Jerome was known to be vegetarian and, in this painting specifically, is supposed to be portrayed as elderly. However, the painting suggests that he actually has a very muscular athleticism to his appearance despite his lifestyle and age. I find this especially significant because this may help gain understanding into the subjective view of the artist who experienced medieval times first hand. I wonder if, because the painting is a depiction of Saint Jerome, did the artist specifically portray him with such strength so as to suggest that this power may only be attained by the grace of God? Could this physical strength be a symbolic of the inner strength and connection that may have been needed between himself and God as he translated the New Testament from Greek to Latin?

However, my absolute favorite piece of medieval art in the museum was Vannini's The Gathering of Manna. As I read the description, I was happy to recognize its two main subjects (Moses and Aaron) as well as the historical significance of the event that was taking place (as laid out in The Bible). Furthermore, Dr. Comber later explained the reasoning behind the glowing 'horns' emitted from Moses's head and how it served as a prime example of Christian representation of Jews during the Middle Ages. This reminded me of the hostility between groups that specifically arose from religious differences during this time and begged the question, how did Jews represent Christian's during this time?

Overall, my understanding of the importance of religion and emphasis on Christianity was heightened with this trip to the art museum. I feel these new connections made today will be discussed frequently throughout the rest of this semester either literally or symbolically and will especially aid me during my Specialty Area research.

Works Cited

Aertsen, Pieter. Kitchen Still Life with a Scene of the Supper at Emmaus Beyond. 1551/1553, Oil on wood panel. David Owsley Museum, Muncie, Indiana.

French. Christ?. 1225/1235. Limestone. David Owsley Museum, Muncie, Indiana.

Giovane, Jacopo Palma il. Saint Jerome. N.d. Oil on canvas. David Owsley Museum, Muncie, Indiana.

Spanish. Christ. 1225/1250. Wood, metal, paint. David Owsley Museum, Muncie, Indiana.

Vannini, Ottavio. The Gathering of Manna. 1635. Oil on canvas. David Owsley Museum, Muncie, Indiana.